Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases 
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This is an RSS file. You can use it to subscribe to this data in your favourite RSS reader or to display this data on your own website or blog.A Brief Introduction to Influenza A Virus in Swine
Influenza A viruses (IAV) of the Orthomyxoviridae virus family cause one of the most important respiratory diseases in pigs as well as humans. Repeated outbreaks and rapid spread of genetically and antigenically distinct IAVs represent a considerable challenge for animal production and public health. This overlap between human and animal health is a prime example of the “One Health” concept. Although only subtypes of H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are endemic in swine around the world, considerable diversity can be found not only in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes, but in the other 6 genes as well. Hu...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Avian Influenza Virus RNA Extraction
The efficient extraction and purification of viral RNA is critical for down-stream molecular applications whether it is the sensitive and specific detection of virus in clinical samples, virus gene cloning and expression, or quantification of avian influenza (AI) virus by molecular methods from experimentally infected birds. Samples can generally be divided into two types; enriched (e.g. virus stocks) and clinical. Clinical type samples, which may be tissues or swab material, are the most difficult to process due to the complex sample composition and possibly low virus titers. In this chapter two well established procedure...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Avian Influenza Virus Sample Types, Collection, and Handling
Successful detection of avian influenza (AI) virus, viral antigen, nucleic acid, or antibody is dependent upon the collection of the appropriate sample type, the quality of the sample, and the proper storage and handling of the sample. The diagnostic tests to be performed should be considered prior to sample collection. Sera are acceptable samples for ELISA or agar gel precipitin tests, but not for real-time RT-PCR. Likewise, swabs and/or tissues are acceptable for real-time RT-PCR and virus isolation. The sample type will also depend on the type of birds that are being tested; although it is optimal to collect both oropha...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Wild Bird Surveillance for Avian Influenza Virus
Avian influenza (AI) viruses have been isolated from a wide-diversity of free-living avian species representing several taxonomic orders. Isolations are most frequently reported from aquatic birds in the Orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes, which are believed to be the primordial reservoirs for all AI viruses. Since first recognized in the late 1800s, AI viruses have been an important agent of disease in poultry and, occasionally, of non-gallinaceous birds and mammals. However, recent infections of humans with AI viruses, including highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus and low pathogenicity H7N9 AI virus ...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
A Brief Introduction to Avian Influenza Virus
Avian influenza virus (AIV) causes a disease of high economic importance for poultry production worldwide. The earliest recorded cases of probable high-pathogenicity AIV in poultry were reported in Italy in the 1870s, and avian influenza has been recognized in domestic poultry through the modern era of poultry production. Approaches to control vary widely, but elimination of the disease in poultry is a common goal. The basics of AIV biology, clinical disease, molecular aspects, and AIV detection are briefly reviewed. (Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases)
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Newcastle Disease Virus Detection and Differentiation from Avian Influenza
Newcastle disease (ND) is a contagious and often fatal disease that affects over 250 bird species worldwide, and is caused by infection with virulent strains of avian paramyxovirus-1 (APMV-1) of the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Avulavirus. Infections of poultry with virulent strains of APMV-1 (Newcastle disease virus) are reportable to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). Vaccination of poultry species is a key measure in the control of ND. Other APMV-1 viruses of low virulence, which are not used as vaccines, are also often isolated from wild bird species. The APMV-1 virus, like avian influenza virus (AIV), is...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Characterization of Cytokine Expression Induced by Avian Influenza Virus Infection with Real-Time RT-PCR
Knowledge of how birds react to infection from avian influenza virus is critical to understanding disease pathogenesis and host response. The use of real-time (R) RT-PCR to measure innate immunity, including cytokine and interferon gene expression, has become a standard technique employed by avian immunologists interested in examining these responses. This technique utilizes nucleotide primers and fluorescent reporter molecules to measure amplification of the gene of interest. The use of RRT-PCR negates the need for northern blot analysis or DNA sequencing. It is simple, specific and sensitive for the gene of interest. How...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Detection of Cell-Mediated Immune Response to Avian Influenza Viruses
The measurement of cell-mediated immunity (CMI) is critical to understanding the role and regulation of avian lymphocytes following avian influenza virus (AIV) infection. While these different cell types have distinctly different modes of action in terms of contributions to protection, they account for the majority of adaptive immunity induced following infection or vaccination. Although the ability to measure CMI has steadily improved over the last few years, few studies have examined its role in protection of birds against AIV. The increasing availability of monoclonal antibodies recognizing various avian cell-associated...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Laboratory Methods for Assessing and Licensing Influenza Vaccines for Poultry
Avian influenza vaccines for poultry are based on hemagglutinin proteins, and protection is specific to the vaccine subtype. Over 113 billion doses have been used between 2002 and 2010 for high pathogenicity avian influenza control. No universal vaccines are currently available. The majority of avian influenza vaccines are inactivated whole influenza viruses that are grown in embryonating eggs, inactivated, emulsified in oil adjuvant systems, and injected into chickens. Live virus-vectored vaccines such as recombinant viruses of fowl pox, Newcastle disease, herpesvirus of turkeys and duck enteritis containing inserts of av...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Conducting Influenza Virus Pathogenesis Studies in Avian Species
Avian infection studies with influenza A virus are an important means of assessing host susceptibility, viral pathogenesis, host responses to infection, mechanisms of transmission, and viral pathotype. Complex systems and natural settings may also be explored with carefully designed infection studies. In this chapter, we explore the elements of infection studies, general guidelines for choosing a virus to use, host selection, and many aspects of study design. (Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases)
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Detection of Influenza A Antibodies in Avian Serum Samples by ELISA
ELISA assays are a fast and relatively inexpensive way to screen sera for antibodies to avian influenza virus. Commercial ELISA kits are available, and although they are more expensive, they provide a ready-to-use assay with good quality control. Various sample types can be processed for ELISA: serum, plasma, egg yolk, blood collected on filter paper. Quality samples are critical to accurate results. The basics of AIV antibody ELISA, sample processing, results interpretation, and troubleshooting are discussed. (Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases)
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Assay to Detect Antibodies to Type A Influenza Virus
The agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test is used to detect antibodies to Type A influenza group-specific antigens, i.e., the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) and matrix (M) proteins. Therefore, this test will detect antibodies to all influenza A virus subtypes. AGID is commonly used to screen poultry flocks for avian influenza virus infection. The AGID is a simple and economical serological test. All serological testing has its advantages and disadvantages which should be considered before choosing the optimal test for the laboratory needs. Each laboratory must evaluate the laboratory’s resources, the volume of testing, the g...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Avian Influenza Virus Isolation, Propagation, and Titration in Embryonated Chicken Eggs
Avian influenza virus and some mammalian influenza A viruses are usually isolated, propagated, and titrated in embryonated chicken eggs (ECE). Most any sample type can be accommodated for culture with appropriate processing. Isolation may also be accomplished in cell culture particularly if mammalian lineage isolates are suspected, for example, swine influenza in turkey specimens. Culture is highly sensitive, but is not specific for influenza A, which may be an advantage because a sample may be screened for several agents at once. Once an agent is isolated in culture, the presence of influenza viruses is confirmed with any...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Influenza Subtype Identification with Molecular Methods
Gene sequencing and RT-PCR based methods are the molecular alternative to serology for the identification of influenza virus hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigenic subtypes. Compared to serology both RT-PCR and sequencing are preferred subtyping methods because of the number of reference reagents which need to be prepared for serological methods and results of molecular methods are often easier to interpret. The best method to utilize will depend on the goals of the work being conducted and the resources available. The salient features and basic outline of workflow for subtype identification by molecular methods will be...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
Avian Influenza Virus Detection and Quantitation by Real-Time RT-PCR
Real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) has been used for avian influenza virus (AIV) detection since the early 2000s for routine surveillance, outbreak assessment and for research. Some of the advantages of rRT-PCR are: high sensitivity, high specificity, rapid time-to-result, scalability, cost, and its inherently quantitative nature. Furthermore, rRT-PCR can be used with numerous sample types, is less expensive than virus isolation in chicken embryos, and since infectious virus is inactivated early during processing, biosafety and bio-security are also easier to maintain. However, the high genetic variability of AIV may decrease sens...
Source: Springer protocols feed by Infectious Diseases - June 6, 2014 Category: Infectious Diseases Source Type: news
